Group | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | |||||||
Period 1 | 1 H | 2 He | |||||||||||||||||||||||
2 | 3 Li | 4 Be | 5 B | 6 C | 7 N | 8 O | 9 F | 10 Ne | |||||||||||||||||
3 | 11 Na | 12 Mg | 13 Al | 14 Si | 15 P | 16 S | 17 Cl | 18 Ar | |||||||||||||||||
4 | 19 K | 20 Ca | 21 Sc | 22 Ti | 23 V | 24 Cr | 25 Mn | 26 Fe | 27 Co | 28 Ni | 29 Cu | 30 Zn | 31 Ga | 32 Ge | 33 As | 34 Se | 35 Br | 36 Kr | |||||||
5 | 37 Rb | 38 Sr | 39 Y | 40 Zr | 41 Nb | 42 Mo | 43 Tc | 44 Ru | 45 Rh | 46 Pd | 47 Ag | 48 Cd | 49 In | 50 Sn | 51 Sb | 52 Te | 53 I | 54 Xe | |||||||
6 | 55 Cs | 56 Ba | 57 La | 72 Hf | 73 Ta | 74 W | 75 Re | 76 Os | 77 Ir | 78 Pt | 79 Au | 80 Hg | 81 Tl | 82 Pb | 83 Bi | 84 Po | 85 At | 86 Rn | |||||||
7 | 87 Fr | 88 Ra | 89 Ac | 104 Rf | 105 Db | 106 Sg | 107 Bh | 108 Hs | 109 Mt | 110 Ds | 111 Rg | 112 Cn | 113 Uut | 114 Uuq | 115 Uup | 116 Uuh | 117 Uus | 118 Uuo | |||||||
58 Ce | 59 Pr | 60 Nd | 61 Pm | 62 Sm | 63 Eu | 64 Gd | 65 Tb | 66 Dy | 67 Ho | 68 Er | 69 Tm | 70 Yb | 71 Lu | ||||||||||||
90 Th | 91 Pa | 92 U | 93 Np | 94 Pu | 95 Am | 96 Cm | 97 Bk | 98 Cf | 99 Es | 100 Fm | 101 Md | 102 No | 103 Lr | ||||||||||||
Sunday, 29 January 2012
periodic table
Thursday, 26 January 2012
Carbon
Carbon
General:
Name: Carbon
Type: Non-Metal, Carbon group
Density @ 293 K: 2.267 g/cm3 (graphite), 3.513 g/cm3 (diamond)
Type: Non-Metal, Carbon group
Density @ 293 K: 2.267 g/cm3 (graphite), 3.513 g/cm3 (diamond)
Symbol: C
Atomic weight: 12.011
Atomic volume: 5.31 cm3/mol (graphite), 3.42 cm3/mol (diamond)
Atomic weight: 12.011
Atomic volume: 5.31 cm3/mol (graphite), 3.42 cm3/mol (diamond)
States
State (s, l, g): solid
Melting point: 3823 K (3550 oC)
Melting point: 3823 K (3550 oC)
Boiling point: 4300 K (4027 oC)
Note: At normal pressures, carbon does not melt when heated, it sublimes - i.e. when heated, carbon undergoes a phase change directly from solid to gas, much like dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) does. The melting point quoted above is under a pressure of 10 atmospheres.
Appearance
Structure: hexagonal layers (graphite), tetrahedral (diamond)
Hardness: 0.5 mohs (graphite), 10.0 mohs (diamond)
Hardness: 0.5 mohs (graphite), 10.0 mohs (diamond)
Color: black (graphite), transparent (diamond)
Harmful effects:
Pure carbon has very low toxicity. Inhalation of large quantities of carbon black dust (soot/coal dust) can cause irritation and damage to the lungs.
Reactions & Compounds
Reaction with air: vigorous, ⇒ CO2
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: mild, w/ht ⇒ C6(CO2H)6 (mellitic/graphitic acid)
Oxide(s): CO , CO2
Hydride(s): CH4 and many CxHy
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: mild, w/ht ⇒ C6(CO2H)6 (mellitic/graphitic acid)
Oxide(s): CO , CO2
Hydride(s): CH4 and many CxHy
Reaction with 6 M HCl: none
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): CCl4
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): CCl4
Radius
Atomic radius: 70 pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (1+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: 25-470 W m-1 K-1 (graphite)
470 W m-1 K-1 (diamond)
470 W m-1 K-1 (diamond)
Electrical conductivity: 0.07 x 106 S cm-1
Features:
Carbon can exist with several different 3-dimensional structures in which atoms are arranged differently (allotropes).
Three common crystalline allotropes are graphite, diamond, and (usually) fullerines. (Fullerines may sometimes exist in amorphous form.) (9)
Carbon can also exist in an amorphous state. Many commonly described as amorphous allotropes, however, as glassy carbon, soot or carbon black are usually enough structure to not be truly amorphous. Although crystalline nanotubes were observed, they are generally amorphous (10).
The structures of eight allotropes are displayed at the bottom of this page.
Interestingly, the graphite is one of the sweetest substances and diamonds was thought until recently to be the hardest substance of natural origin.
An extremely rare allotrope of carbon, lonsdaleite was calculated, in its pure form, 58% stronger than diamond. Lonsdaleite is a network of diamond-like carbon with a hexagonal structure of graphite. It is made when meteorites containing graphite hit another body, like the Earth. The high temperatures and pressures transform the impact of graphite lonsdaleite.
Carbon is the highest melting / sublimation point of all elements and, in the form of diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of any element.
Diamond high thermal conductivity is the origin of the slang expression "ice". A typical room temperature of your body temperature is higher than the room - including large diamonds, you can just happen to have lying around in the room. If you touch any of these diamonds, their high thermal conductivity carries heat away from your skin faster than any other material. Your brain interprets this rapid transfer of heat energy from your skin to mean that you touch something very cold - for diamond at room temperature can feel like ice.
Uses:
Carbon (as coal, which is essentially carbon) is used as fuel.
Graphite is used pencil stubs, crucibles at high temperatures, dry cells, electrodes and as a lubricant.
The diamonds used in jewelry and - because they are so difficult - in the industry for cutting, drilling, grinding and polishing.
Carbon black is used as black pigment in printing ink.
Carbon can form alloys with iron, the most common is carbon steel.
The radioactive isotope 14C is used in archaeological dating.
Carbon compounds are important in many areas of the chemical industry - carbon forms many compounds with elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and others.
Its ability to form long-chain complex compounds of carbon led to acting as the basis for all life on Earth.
The exceptional physical properties of carbon allotropes such as nanotubes news - such as high thermal conductivity and resistance - offers enormous potential for future development.
Carbon can exist with several different 3-dimensional structures in which atoms are arranged differently (allotropes).
Three common crystalline allotropes are graphite, diamond, and (usually) fullerines. (Fullerines may sometimes exist in amorphous form.) (9)
Carbon can also exist in an amorphous state. Many commonly described as amorphous allotropes, however, as glassy carbon, soot or carbon black are usually enough structure to not be truly amorphous. Although crystalline nanotubes were observed, they are generally amorphous (10).
The structures of eight allotropes are displayed at the bottom of this page.
Interestingly, the graphite is one of the sweetest substances and diamonds was thought until recently to be the hardest substance of natural origin.
An extremely rare allotrope of carbon, lonsdaleite was calculated, in its pure form, 58% stronger than diamond. Lonsdaleite is a network of diamond-like carbon with a hexagonal structure of graphite. It is made when meteorites containing graphite hit another body, like the Earth. The high temperatures and pressures transform the impact of graphite lonsdaleite.
Carbon is the highest melting / sublimation point of all elements and, in the form of diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of any element.
Diamond high thermal conductivity is the origin of the slang expression "ice". A typical room temperature of your body temperature is higher than the room - including large diamonds, you can just happen to have lying around in the room. If you touch any of these diamonds, their high thermal conductivity carries heat away from your skin faster than any other material. Your brain interprets this rapid transfer of heat energy from your skin to mean that you touch something very cold - for diamond at room temperature can feel like ice.
Uses:
Carbon (as coal, which is essentially carbon) is used as fuel.
Graphite is used pencil stubs, crucibles at high temperatures, dry cells, electrodes and as a lubricant.
The diamonds used in jewelry and - because they are so difficult - in the industry for cutting, drilling, grinding and polishing.
Carbon black is used as black pigment in printing ink.
Carbon can form alloys with iron, the most common is carbon steel.
The radioactive isotope 14C is used in archaeological dating.
Carbon compounds are important in many areas of the chemical industry - carbon forms many compounds with elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and others.
Its ability to form long-chain complex compounds of carbon led to acting as the basis for all life on Earth.
The exceptional physical properties of carbon allotropes such as nanotubes news - such as high thermal conductivity and resistance - offers enormous potential for future development.
Energies
Specific heat capacity: 0.71 J g-1 K-1 (graphite), 0.5091 J g-1 K-1 (diamond)
Heat of fusion: 117 kJ mol-1 (graphite)
1st ionization energy: 1086.5 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 4620.5 kJ mol-1
Heat of fusion: 117 kJ mol-1 (graphite)
1st ionization energy: 1086.5 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 4620.5 kJ mol-1
Heat of atomization: 717 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 710.9 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 2352.6 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 121.55 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 710.9 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 2352.6 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 121.55 kJ mol-1
Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 2,4
Minimum oxidation number: -4
Min. common oxidation no.: -4
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 2.55
Minimum oxidation number: -4
Min. common oxidation no.: -4
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 2.55
Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p2
Maximum oxidation number: 4
Max. common oxidation no.: 4
Polarizability volume: 1.8 Å3
Maximum oxidation number: 4
Max. common oxidation no.: 4
Polarizability volume: 1.8 Å3
Abundance & Isotopes
Abundance earth's crust: 200 parts per million by weight, 344 parts per million by moles
Abundance solar system: 3000 parts per million by weight, 300 parts per million by moles
Cost, pure: $2.4 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $ per 100g
Source: Carbon can be obtained by burning organic compounds with insufficient oxygen. The four main allotropes of carbon are graphite, diamond, amorphous carbon and fullerines. Natural diamonds are found in kimberlite from ancient volcanoes. Graphite can also be found in natural deposits. Fullerenes were discovered as byproducts of molecular beam experiments in the 1980s. Amorphous carbon is the main constituent of charcoal, soot (carbon black), and activated carbon.
Isotopes: 13 whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 8 to 20. Of these, two are stable, 12C and 13C. Isotope 14C, with a half-life of 5730 years, is widely used to date carbonaceous materials such as wood, archeological specimens, etc for ages up to about 40 000 years.
Abundance solar system: 3000 parts per million by weight, 300 parts per million by moles
Cost, pure: $2.4 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $ per 100g
Source: Carbon can be obtained by burning organic compounds with insufficient oxygen. The four main allotropes of carbon are graphite, diamond, amorphous carbon and fullerines. Natural diamonds are found in kimberlite from ancient volcanoes. Graphite can also be found in natural deposits. Fullerenes were discovered as byproducts of molecular beam experiments in the 1980s. Amorphous carbon is the main constituent of charcoal, soot (carbon black), and activated carbon.
Isotopes: 13 whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 8 to 20. Of these, two are stable, 12C and 13C. Isotope 14C, with a half-life of 5730 years, is widely used to date carbonaceous materials such as wood, archeological specimens, etc for ages up to about 40 000 years.
Discovery of carbon:
"Carbon" is derived from the Latin "carbo" meaning coal.
Carbon has been known since antiquity as soot, charcoal, graphite and diamond. Ancient cultures did not realize, of course, that these substances were different forms of the same element.
Antoine Lavoisier called carbon and conducted some of the early experiments to reveal its nature. In 1694, he shared their resources with other chemists to buy a diamond, they are placed in a glass jar closed. They focused the sun's rays on the diamond with a loupe remarkable - illustration to the right - and I saw the diamond burn and disappear. Lavoisier noted the weight of the pot has remained unchanged and that when it burned, the diamond was combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. He concluded that the diamond and coal have been made of the same element - carbon.
In 1779, Carl Scheele showed that graphite burned to form carbon dioxide and should be another form of carbon
In 1796 Smithson Tennant was determined that pure carbon diamond and not a compound of carbon, it burns to form carbon dioxide only. Tennant has also shown that when equal weight of coal and diamonds were burned, they produced the same amount of carbon dioxide.
"Carbon" is derived from the Latin "carbo" meaning coal.
Carbon has been known since antiquity as soot, charcoal, graphite and diamond. Ancient cultures did not realize, of course, that these substances were different forms of the same element.
Antoine Lavoisier called carbon and conducted some of the early experiments to reveal its nature. In 1694, he shared their resources with other chemists to buy a diamond, they are placed in a glass jar closed. They focused the sun's rays on the diamond with a loupe remarkable - illustration to the right - and I saw the diamond burn and disappear. Lavoisier noted the weight of the pot has remained unchanged and that when it burned, the diamond was combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. He concluded that the diamond and coal have been made of the same element - carbon.
In 1779, Carl Scheele showed that graphite burned to form carbon dioxide and should be another form of carbon
In 1796 Smithson Tennant was determined that pure carbon diamond and not a compound of carbon, it burns to form carbon dioxide only. Tennant has also shown that when equal weight of coal and diamonds were burned, they produced the same amount of carbon dioxide.
In 1855, Benjamin Brodie pure graphite carbon products, graphite was proving a form of carbon
Although it was already tried, unsuccessfully, in 1955, Francis Bundy and his colleagues at General Electric has finally shown that the graphite can be transformed into diamond at high temperature and high pressure.
In 1985, Robert Curl, Harry Kroto and Richard Smalley discovered fullerenes, a new form of carbon in which atoms are arranged in shapes of footballs.
The most recently discovered allotrope of carbon is graphene, which consists of a single layer of graphite. Graphene has a thickness of only one atom. Its discovery was announced in 2004 by Kostya Novoselov and Andre Geim, who used duct tape to detach a single layer of graphite atoms to produce the new allotrope.
Boron
Boron
General:
Name: Boron
Type: Metalloid
Density @ 293 K: 2.34 g/cm3
Type: Metalloid
Density @ 293 K: 2.34 g/cm3
Symbol: B
Atomic weight: 10.81
Atomic volume: 4.6 cm3/mol
Atomic weight: 10.81
Atomic volume: 4.6 cm3/mol
States
State (s, l, g): solid
Melting point: 2348 K (2075 oC)
Melting point: 2348 K (2075 oC)
Boiling point: 4000 K (3727 oC)
Appearance
Structure: rhombohedral; B12 is icosahedral.
Hardness: 9.3 mohs
Hardness: 9.3 mohs
Color: black
Harmful effects:
Elemental boron is not known to be toxic.
Reactions & Compounds
Reaction with air: mild, w/ht ⇒ B2O3
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): B2O3
Hydride(s): B2H6 and many BxHy
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): B2O3
Hydride(s): B2H6 and many BxHy
Reaction with 6 M HCl: none
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): BCl3 and many BxCly
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): BCl3 and many BxCly
Radius
Atomic radius: 85 pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (1+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): 41 pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): 41 pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: 27.4 W m-1 K-1
Electrical conductivity: 5.0 x10-4 S cm-1
Energies
Specific heat capacity: 1.02 J g-1 K-1
Heat of fusion: 50.2 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 800.6 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 3659.7 kJ mol-1
Heat of fusion: 50.2 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 800.6 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 3659.7 kJ mol-1
Heat of atomization: 563 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 480 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 2427.1 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 26.7 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 480 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 2427.1 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 26.7 kJ mol-1
Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 2,3
Minimum oxidation number: 0
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 2.04
Minimum oxidation number: 0
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 2.04
Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p1
Maximum oxidation number: 3
Max. common oxidation no.: 3
Polarizability volume: 3 Å3
Maximum oxidation number: 3
Max. common oxidation no.: 3
Polarizability volume: 3 Å3
Characteristics:
Boron is a metalloid, intermediate between metals and non-metals. It exists in many polymorphs (different crystal lattice structures), some more metallic than others. Metallic boron is extremely hard and has a very high melting point.
Boron does not generally make ionic bonds, it forms stable covalent bonds.
Boron can transmit portions of infrared light.
Boron is a poor room temperature conductor of electricity but its conductivity improves markedly at higher temperatures.
Boron is a metalloid, intermediate between metals and non-metals. It exists in many polymorphs (different crystal lattice structures), some more metallic than others. Metallic boron is extremely hard and has a very high melting point.
Boron does not generally make ionic bonds, it forms stable covalent bonds.
Boron can transmit portions of infrared light.
Boron is a poor room temperature conductor of electricity but its conductivity improves markedly at higher temperatures.
Uses:
Boron is used to dope silicon and germanium semiconductors, modifying their electrical properties.
Boron oxide (B2O3) is used in glassmaking and ceramics.
Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O) is used in making fiberglass, as a cleansing fluid, a water softener, insecticide, herbicide and disinfectant.
Boric acid (H3BO3) is used as a mild antiseptic and as a flame retardant.
Boron Nitride's hardness is second only to diamond, but it has better thermal and chemical stability, hence boron nitride ceramics are used in high-temperature equipment.
Boron nitride nanotubes can have a similar structure to carbon nanotubes. BN nanotubes are more thermally and chemically stable than carbon nanotubes and, unlike carbon nanotubes, boron nitride nanotubes are electrical insulators.
Boron carbide (B4C) is used in tank armor and bullet proof vests.
Abundance & Isotopes
Abundance earth's crust: 10 parts per milllion by weight, 1 part per million by moles
Abundance solar system: 2 parts per billion by weight, 0.2 parts per billion by moles
Cost, pure: $1114 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $500 per 100g
Source: Boron compunds are usually is found in sediments and sedimentary rock formations. The chief sources of boron are Na2B4O6(OH)2.3H2O - known as rasorite or kernite; borax ore (known as tincal); and with calcium in colemanite (CaB3O4(OH)4.H2O). Boron also occurs as orthoboric acid in some volcanic spring waters.
Isotopes: 11 whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 7 to 17. Of these, two are stable: 10B and 11B. 10B is used in nuclear reactors as a neutron-capturing substance.
Abundance solar system: 2 parts per billion by weight, 0.2 parts per billion by moles
Cost, pure: $1114 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $500 per 100g
Source: Boron compunds are usually is found in sediments and sedimentary rock formations. The chief sources of boron are Na2B4O6(OH)2.3H2O - known as rasorite or kernite; borax ore (known as tincal); and with calcium in colemanite (CaB3O4(OH)4.H2O). Boron also occurs as orthoboric acid in some volcanic spring waters.
Isotopes: 11 whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 7 to 17. Of these, two are stable: 10B and 11B. 10B is used in nuclear reactors as a neutron-capturing substance.
Discovery of boron
The boron compounds such as borax (sodium tetraborate, Na2B4O7·10H2O) were known and used by ancient cultures for thousands of years. Borax name comes from the Arabic Buraq, which means "white."
Boron was first isolated in 1808 in part by the French chemists Joseph L. Gay-Lussac and Thenard LJ and independently by Sir Humphry Davy in London. Gay-Lussac and Thenard reacted boric acid with magnesium or sodium boron to give a gray solid. They believed that it shares characteristics with the sulfur and phosphorus and the name he bore.
Davy first tried to produce boron by electrolysis of boric acid, but was not satisfied with the results. He had more success reacting boric acid with potassium in a hydrogen atmosphere. The result was a powdery substance.
Davy said the substance was "the darkest shades of olive. It is opaque, very brittle, and the powder does not scratch the glass." After making a number of chemical reactions to verify the uniqueness of the substance, Davy wrote, "there are strong reasons to consider the basis of boric acid as a metal in nature, and I venture to propose for boracium name. "
Neither party had, in fact, a product of pure boron. Their samples were only about 60% pure. In 1909 William Weintraub was able to produce 99% pure boron, reducing boron halides with hydrogen.
Almost a century later, in 2004, Jiuhua Chen and Vladimir L. Solozhenko produced a new form of boron, but uncertain of its structure.
In 2009, a team led by Artem Oganov was able to show the new form of boron has two structures, icosohedra B12 and B2 pairs. Gamma-bore, as it was called, is almost as hard as diamond and more resistant to heat than the diamond.
Speaking of metal part of the boron, non-metallic element properties, Oganov said, "Boron is a truly schizophrenic. Is an element of total frustration. He does not know what to do. The result is something terribly complicated. "
The boron compounds such as borax (sodium tetraborate, Na2B4O7·10H2O) were known and used by ancient cultures for thousands of years. Borax name comes from the Arabic Buraq, which means "white."
Boron was first isolated in 1808 in part by the French chemists Joseph L. Gay-Lussac and Thenard LJ and independently by Sir Humphry Davy in London. Gay-Lussac and Thenard reacted boric acid with magnesium or sodium boron to give a gray solid. They believed that it shares characteristics with the sulfur and phosphorus and the name he bore.
Davy first tried to produce boron by electrolysis of boric acid, but was not satisfied with the results. He had more success reacting boric acid with potassium in a hydrogen atmosphere. The result was a powdery substance.
Davy said the substance was "the darkest shades of olive. It is opaque, very brittle, and the powder does not scratch the glass." After making a number of chemical reactions to verify the uniqueness of the substance, Davy wrote, "there are strong reasons to consider the basis of boric acid as a metal in nature, and I venture to propose for boracium name. "
Neither party had, in fact, a product of pure boron. Their samples were only about 60% pure. In 1909 William Weintraub was able to produce 99% pure boron, reducing boron halides with hydrogen.
Almost a century later, in 2004, Jiuhua Chen and Vladimir L. Solozhenko produced a new form of boron, but uncertain of its structure.
In 2009, a team led by Artem Oganov was able to show the new form of boron has two structures, icosohedra B12 and B2 pairs. Gamma-bore, as it was called, is almost as hard as diamond and more resistant to heat than the diamond.
Speaking of metal part of the boron, non-metallic element properties, Oganov said, "Boron is a truly schizophrenic. Is an element of total frustration. He does not know what to do. The result is something terribly complicated. "
Beryllium
Beryllium
General:
Name: Beryllium
Type: Alkali Metal
Density @ 293 K: 1.848 g/cm3
Type: Alkali Metal
Density @ 293 K: 1.848 g/cm3
Symbol: Be
Atomic weight: 9.01218
Atomic volume: 4.9 cm3/mol
Atomic weight: 9.01218
Atomic volume: 4.9 cm3/mol
States
State (s, l, g): solid
Melting point: 1551.2 K (1278 oC)
Melting point: 1551.2 K (1278 oC)
Boiling point: 2742 K (2469 oC)
Appearance
Structure: hcp: hexagonal close packed
Hardness: 5.5 mohs
Hardness: 5.5 mohs
Color: steel gray
Harmful effects:
Beryllium and its salts are both toxic and carcinogenic.
Harmful effects:
Beryllium and its salts are both toxic and carcinogenic.
Reactions & Compounds
Reaction with air: vigourous, w/ht ⇒ BeO, Be3N2
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): BeO3
Hydride(s): BeH2
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): BeO3
Hydride(s): BeH2
Reaction with 6 M HCl: mild ⇒ H2
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: mild ⇒ H2, [Be(OH)4]2
Chloride(s): BeCl2
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: mild ⇒ H2, [Be(OH)4]2
Chloride(s): BeCl2
Radius
Atomic radius: 112 pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): 45 pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): 45 pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (1+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: 200 W m-1 K-1
Electrical conductivity: 0.25 x 106 S cm-1
Energies
Specific heat capacity: 1.82 J g-1 K-1
Heat of fusion: 7.895 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 899.5 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 14848.7 kJ mol-1
Heat of fusion: 7.895 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 899.5 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 14848.7 kJ mol-1
Heat of atomization: 324 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 297 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 1757.1 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 0 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 297 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 1757.1 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 0 kJ mol-1
Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 2,2
Minimum oxidation number: 0
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 1.57
Minimum oxidation number: 0
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 1.57
Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2
Maximum oxidation number: 2
Max. common oxidation no.: 2
Polarizability volume: 5.6 Å3
Maximum oxidation number: 2
Max. common oxidation no.: 2
Polarizability volume: 5.6 Å3
Characteristics:
Beryllium is light, silver-gray, relatively soft metal that is strong but brittle.
Beryllium has the highest melting point of the light metals, melting at 1278 oC - considerably higher than, for example, Lithium (180 oC) Sodium (98 oC) Magnesium (650 oC) Aluminium (660 oC) or Calcium (839 oC).
Under normal conditions, a thin layer of the hard oxide BeO forms on beryllium's surface, protecting the metal from further attack by water or air.
As a result of this BeO layer, beryllium does not oxidize in air even at 600oC and it resists corrosion by concentrated nitric acid.
Beryllium also has high thermal conductivity and is nonmagnetic.
Uses:
Unlike most metals, beryllium is virtually transparent to x-rays and hence it is used in radiation windows for x-ray tubes.
Beryllium alloys are used in the aerospace industry as light-weight materials for high performance aircraft, satellites and spacecraft.
Beryllium is used as an alloy with copper to make spark-proof tools.
Beryllium is also used in nuclear reactors as a reflector and absorber of neutrons, a shield and a moderator.
Beryllium is light, silver-gray, relatively soft metal that is strong but brittle.
Beryllium has the highest melting point of the light metals, melting at 1278 oC - considerably higher than, for example, Lithium (180 oC) Sodium (98 oC) Magnesium (650 oC) Aluminium (660 oC) or Calcium (839 oC).
Under normal conditions, a thin layer of the hard oxide BeO forms on beryllium's surface, protecting the metal from further attack by water or air.
As a result of this BeO layer, beryllium does not oxidize in air even at 600oC and it resists corrosion by concentrated nitric acid.
Beryllium also has high thermal conductivity and is nonmagnetic.
Uses:
Unlike most metals, beryllium is virtually transparent to x-rays and hence it is used in radiation windows for x-ray tubes.
Beryllium alloys are used in the aerospace industry as light-weight materials for high performance aircraft, satellites and spacecraft.
Beryllium is used as an alloy with copper to make spark-proof tools.
Beryllium is also used in nuclear reactors as a reflector and absorber of neutrons, a shield and a moderator.
Abundance & Isotopes
Abundance earth's crust: 2.8 parts per million by weight, 4.6 parts per million by moles
Abundance solar system: parts per billion by weight, parts per billion by moles
Cost, pure: $748 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $93 per 100g
Source: The mineral beryl, Be3Al2(SiO3)6 is the most important source of beryllium. Commercially it is produced by the reduction of the fluoride with magnesium metal.
Isotopes: Beryllium has nine isotopes with known half-lives. 9Be is the only stable isotope. Cosmogenic 10Be (half-life 1.51 million years) is produced in the atmosphere by the impact of cosmic rays on oxygen and nitrogen.
Abundance solar system: parts per billion by weight, parts per billion by moles
Cost, pure: $748 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $93 per 100g
Source: The mineral beryl, Be3Al2(SiO3)6 is the most important source of beryllium. Commercially it is produced by the reduction of the fluoride with magnesium metal.
Isotopes: Beryllium has nine isotopes with known half-lives. 9Be is the only stable isotope. Cosmogenic 10Be (half-life 1.51 million years) is produced in the atmosphere by the impact of cosmic rays on oxygen and nitrogen.
Discovery of beryllium
In 1798, France, René Haüy saw similarities in the crystal structures and properties of beryl and emerald. Beryl is a mineral that may appear in a number of different colors. Emerald is a green gem.
Haüy wondered if they could be made of the same elements. He approached Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, chemist specializing in analysis, and asked him committed to their compositions.
Until then, the emerald was believed to be mainly a compound of alumina and silica. Vauquelin discovered a substance in the emerald and beryl that both, although similar in some respects to alumina, reacted differently Some reagents. For example, the new substance unlikable alumina dissolved in ammonium carbonate et ses sels had a sweet taste.
In fact, Vauquelin discovered the substance we now call beryllium oxide (BeO). In 1760, Louis de Morveau proposed alumina contained a new metal element. Similarly Vauquelin Project Contained Beryllium metal is now a new earth.
Vauquelin originally called "land of beryl. His new element The sweet taste of salt then led to the new element was named 'glyceynum "," beryllium oxide, "then or' beryllium oxide. The Greek "Glykis' Mean 'soft' and is the source of our word" glucose ".
Beryllium was isolated in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler in Germany and, independently, Antoine Bussy in France. The two chemists reacted with potassium chloride in a platinum crucible beryllium produces potassium chloride and beryllium.
Wöhler was unhappy with the name of the new element had been given, preferring beryllium from the Greek word "beryllos," Meaning of the mineral beryl.
Wöhler compatriot, Martin Klaproth, had already stressed in 1801 that the yttria aussi forms salts sweet. A name derived from 'beryllos "would be likely to cause less confusion of a derivative of' Glykis. Klaproth also noted that a genus of plants has already been called beryllium oxide.
Bussy, however, preferred to call the new element "beryllium".
Finally, in 1949, beryllium thing that the IUPAC name of the item and the decision became official in 1957.
Beryllium played an important role in proving the existence of neutrons. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded a sample of beryllium with alpha rays (helium nuclei). He bombed the observed sample that has made a subatomic particle, no goal HAD load mass. This was the neutron neutral particles.
In 1798, France, René Haüy saw similarities in the crystal structures and properties of beryl and emerald. Beryl is a mineral that may appear in a number of different colors. Emerald is a green gem.
Haüy wondered if they could be made of the same elements. He approached Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, chemist specializing in analysis, and asked him committed to their compositions.
Until then, the emerald was believed to be mainly a compound of alumina and silica. Vauquelin discovered a substance in the emerald and beryl that both, although similar in some respects to alumina, reacted differently Some reagents. For example, the new substance unlikable alumina dissolved in ammonium carbonate et ses sels had a sweet taste.
In fact, Vauquelin discovered the substance we now call beryllium oxide (BeO). In 1760, Louis de Morveau proposed alumina contained a new metal element. Similarly Vauquelin Project Contained Beryllium metal is now a new earth.
Vauquelin originally called "land of beryl. His new element The sweet taste of salt then led to the new element was named 'glyceynum "," beryllium oxide, "then or' beryllium oxide. The Greek "Glykis' Mean 'soft' and is the source of our word" glucose ".
Beryllium was isolated in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler in Germany and, independently, Antoine Bussy in France. The two chemists reacted with potassium chloride in a platinum crucible beryllium produces potassium chloride and beryllium.
Wöhler was unhappy with the name of the new element had been given, preferring beryllium from the Greek word "beryllos," Meaning of the mineral beryl.
Wöhler compatriot, Martin Klaproth, had already stressed in 1801 that the yttria aussi forms salts sweet. A name derived from 'beryllos "would be likely to cause less confusion of a derivative of' Glykis. Klaproth also noted that a genus of plants has already been called beryllium oxide.
Bussy, however, preferred to call the new element "beryllium".
Finally, in 1949, beryllium thing that the IUPAC name of the item and the decision became official in 1957.
Beryllium played an important role in proving the existence of neutrons. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded a sample of beryllium with alpha rays (helium nuclei). He bombed the observed sample that has made a subatomic particle, no goal HAD load mass. This was the neutron neutral particles.
Lithium
Lithium
General:
Name: Lithium
Type: Alkali Metal
Density @ 293 K: 0.53 g/cm3 Symbol: Li
Atomic weight: 6.941
Atomic volume: 13.10 cm3/mol
Discovery of Lithium
Lithium was discovered by Johan Arfvedson in 1817, in an analysis of petalite (LiAlSi4O10).
He found the petalite contained "silica, alumina and alkali."
The new alkali metal in the petalite had unique properties. It took more acid to neutralize a sodium salt. The alkali new potassium differed because it gives no precipitate with tartaric acid and, unlike sodium carbonate was its low solubility.
Arfvedson tried to produce a pure sample of the new metal by electrolysis, but it failed, the battery it used was not powerful enough.
The pure metal was isolated in the following year by both William Humphry Davy and Brande work independently.
Davy obtained a small amount of lithium metal by electrolysis of lithium carbonate.
He noted the new item was a red flame a bit like strontium and produces an alkaline solution when dissolved in water.
In days of less safety conscious than the present, lithium Brande said, "the solution tastes bitter, like the other sets 'alkali.'"
In 1855, Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen were independently produce large quantities of metal by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride.
Name lithium is derived from "lithos", the Greek word for "stone."
Type: Alkali Metal
Density @ 293 K: 0.53 g/cm3 Symbol: Li
Atomic weight: 6.941
Atomic volume: 13.10 cm3/mol
Discovery of Lithium
Lithium was discovered by Johan Arfvedson in 1817, in an analysis of petalite (LiAlSi4O10).
He found the petalite contained "silica, alumina and alkali."
The new alkali metal in the petalite had unique properties. It took more acid to neutralize a sodium salt. The alkali new potassium differed because it gives no precipitate with tartaric acid and, unlike sodium carbonate was its low solubility.
Arfvedson tried to produce a pure sample of the new metal by electrolysis, but it failed, the battery it used was not powerful enough.
The pure metal was isolated in the following year by both William Humphry Davy and Brande work independently.
Davy obtained a small amount of lithium metal by electrolysis of lithium carbonate.
He noted the new item was a red flame a bit like strontium and produces an alkaline solution when dissolved in water.
In days of less safety conscious than the present, lithium Brande said, "the solution tastes bitter, like the other sets 'alkali.'"
In 1855, Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen were independently produce large quantities of metal by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride.
Name lithium is derived from "lithos", the Greek word for "stone."
States
State (s, l, g): solid
Melting point: 453.69 K (180.54 oC)
Melting point: 453.69 K (180.54 oC)
Boiling point: 1615 K (1347 oC)
Appearance
Structure: bcc: body-centered cubic
Hardness: 0.6 mohs
Hardness: 0.6 mohs
Color: silvery
Harmful effects:
Lithium is corrosive, causing skin burns as a result of the caustic hydroxide produced in contact with moisture. Women taking lithium carbonate for bi-polar disorder may be advised to vary their treatment during pregnancy as lithium may cause birth defects.
Reactions & Compounds
Reaction with air: vigorous,⇒ Li2O
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: vigorous,⇒ LiNO3
Oxide(s): Li2O
Hydride(s): LiH
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: vigorous,⇒ LiNO3
Oxide(s): Li2O
Hydride(s): LiH
Reaction with 6 M HCl: vigorous,⇒ H2, LiCl
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: mild, ⇒ H2, LiOH
Chloride(s): LiCl
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: mild, ⇒ H2, LiOH
Chloride(s): LiCl
Radius
Atomic radius: 145 pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (1+ ion): 90 pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: 84.8 W m-1 K-1
Electrical conductivity: 11.7 x 106 S cm-1
Energies
Specific heat capacity: 3.58 J g-1 K-1
Heat of fusion: 3.00 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 520.2 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 11815.0 kJ mol-1
Heat of fusion: 3.00 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 520.2 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 11815.0 kJ mol-1
Heat of atomization: 159 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 147.1 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 7298.1 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 59.63 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 147.1 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy: 7298.1 kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 59.63 kJ mol-1
Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 2,1
Minimum oxidation number: -1
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 0.98
Minimum oxidation number: -1
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 0.98
Electron configuration: 1s2 2s1
Maximum oxidation number: 1
Max. common oxidation no.: 1
Polarizability volume: 24.3 Å3
Maximum oxidation number: 1
Max. common oxidation no.: 1
Polarizability volume: 24.3 Å3
characteristics:
Lithium is soft, silvery white and is the least dense metal. It is very reactive and does not occur freely in nature.
Freshly cut surfaces oxidize rapidly in air to form a black oxide coating. He is the only metal (but see radium) which reacts with nitrogen at room temperature, forming lithium nitride.
Lithium burns with a red flame, but when the metal burns well enough, the flame becomes a brilliant white.
Lithium has a high specific heat capacity and there is like a liquid over a wide temperature range.
uses:
Pure metal lithium is used in rechargeable lithium-ion and the metal is alloyed with aluminum, copper, manganese and cadmium to make parts for high performance aircraft.
Lithium also has various nuclear applications, such as a coolant in nuclear breeder reactors and a source of tritium, which is formed by bombarding lithium with neutrons.
Lithium carbonate is used as a mood-stabilizing drug.
Lithium chloride and bromide are used as desiccants.
Lithium stearate is used as a lubricant all-purpose and high temperature.
Lithium is soft, silvery white and is the least dense metal. It is very reactive and does not occur freely in nature.
Freshly cut surfaces oxidize rapidly in air to form a black oxide coating. He is the only metal (but see radium) which reacts with nitrogen at room temperature, forming lithium nitride.
Lithium burns with a red flame, but when the metal burns well enough, the flame becomes a brilliant white.
Lithium has a high specific heat capacity and there is like a liquid over a wide temperature range.
uses:
Pure metal lithium is used in rechargeable lithium-ion and the metal is alloyed with aluminum, copper, manganese and cadmium to make parts for high performance aircraft.
Lithium also has various nuclear applications, such as a coolant in nuclear breeder reactors and a source of tritium, which is formed by bombarding lithium with neutrons.
Lithium carbonate is used as a mood-stabilizing drug.
Lithium chloride and bromide are used as desiccants.
Lithium stearate is used as a lubricant all-purpose and high temperature.
Interesting Facts: Did You Know?
Interesting Facts about Lithium: Did You Know?
- Lithium is believed to be one of only three elements - the others are hydrogen and helium - produced in significant quantities by the Big Bang.
- Lithium is the only alkali metal that reacts with nitrogen.
- Humphrey Davy produced some of the world's first lithium metal from lithium carbonate. Today lithium carbonate - or more precisely the lithium ions in lithium carbonate - are used to inhibit the manic phase of bipolar (manic-depressive) disorder.
- Batteries based on lithium have revolutionized consumer devices such as computers and cell phones. For a given battery weight, lithium batteries pack a lot of energy compared with batteries based on other metals; in other words, lithium batteries have high energy density.
Abundance & Isotopes
Abundance earth's crust: 20 parts per million by weight, 60 parts per million by moles
Abundance solar system: 60 parts per trillion by weight, 10 parts per trillion by moles
Cost, pure: $27 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $9.50 per 100g
Source: Lithium does not occur as a free element in nature. It is found in small amounts in ores from igneous rocks and in salts from mineral springs. Pure lithium metal is produced by electrolysis from a mixture of fused (molten) lithium chloride and potassium chloride.
Isotopes: Lithium has 7 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 5 to 11. Of these, two are stable: 6Li and 7Li.
Abundance solar system: 60 parts per trillion by weight, 10 parts per trillion by moles
Cost, pure: $27 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $9.50 per 100g
Source: Lithium does not occur as a free element in nature. It is found in small amounts in ores from igneous rocks and in salts from mineral springs. Pure lithium metal is produced by electrolysis from a mixture of fused (molten) lithium chloride and potassium chloride.
Isotopes: Lithium has 7 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 5 to 11. Of these, two are stable: 6Li and 7Li.
Helium
Helium
General:
Name: Helium
Type: Noble Gas
Density @ 293 K: 0.0001787 g/cm3
Type: Noble Gas
Density @ 293 K: 0.0001787 g/cm3
Symbol: He
Atomic weight: 4.00260
Atomic volume: 27.2 cm3/mol
Atomic weight: 4.00260
Atomic volume: 27.2 cm3/mol
States
State (s, l, g): gas
Melting point: 0.95 K (-272.2 oC)
Melting point: 0.95 K (-272.2 oC)
Boiling point: 4.2 K (-268.9 oC)
Appearance
Structure: usually hexagonal close-packed (v.high pressure needed to solidify helium)
Hardness: mohs
Hardness: mohs
Color: colorless
Harmful effects:
Helium is not known to be toxic.
Reactions & Compounds
Reaction with air: none
Reaction with 3 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): none
Hydride(s): none
Reaction with 3 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): none
Hydride(s): none
Reaction with 6 M HCl: none
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): none
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): none
Radius
Atomic radius: 31 pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (1+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: 0.15 W m-1 K-1
Electrical conductivity: S cm-1
Energies
Specific heat capacity: 5.193 J g-1 K-1
Heat of fusion: 0.0138 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 2372.3 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Heat of fusion: 0.0138 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 2372.3 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Heat of atomization: 0
Heat of vaporization: 0.0845 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 0 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 0.0845 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 0 kJ mol-1
Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 2
Minimum oxidation number: 0
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale):
Minimum oxidation number: 0
Min. common oxidation no.: 0
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale):
Electron configuration: 1s2
Maximum oxidation number: 0
Max. common oxidation no.: 0
Polarizability volume: 0.198 Å3
Maximum oxidation number: 0
Max. common oxidation no.: 0
Polarizability volume: 0.198 Å3
characteristics:
Helium is a light, odorless, colorless, inert monatomic gas. It can form diatomic molecules, but only weakly and at temperatures near absolute zero.
Helium has a melting point of the lowest of any element and its boiling point is close to absolute zero.
Unlike any other element, helium does not solidify but remains liquid to absolute zero (0 K) at pressures common.
The voice of someone who has inhaled helium temporarily sounds sharp.
uses:
Helium is used to fill balloons (blimps) and for pressurizing liquid fuel rockets.
Mixtures of helium and oxygen are used as an artificial "air" for divers and others working under pressure. Helium is used in place of nitrogen in normal air, for after a long dive, helium leaves the body faster than nitrogen, allowing rapid decompression.
Helium is used as a shield gas in the vicinity of arc welding and cryogenics, prevention, for example, no reaction of hot metal welding with oxygen. The gas is used in the semiconductor industry condictor to provide an inert atmosphere for crystal silicon and germanium growing. It is also used as a high temperature gas in the production of titanium and zirconium, and as a carrier gas in gas chromatography.
By virtue of its very low temperatures, liquid helium is used to produce superconductivity in certain metals shares.
Helium is a light, odorless, colorless, inert monatomic gas. It can form diatomic molecules, but only weakly and at temperatures near absolute zero.
Helium has a melting point of the lowest of any element and its boiling point is close to absolute zero.
Unlike any other element, helium does not solidify but remains liquid to absolute zero (0 K) at pressures common.
The voice of someone who has inhaled helium temporarily sounds sharp.
uses:
Helium is used to fill balloons (blimps) and for pressurizing liquid fuel rockets.
Mixtures of helium and oxygen are used as an artificial "air" for divers and others working under pressure. Helium is used in place of nitrogen in normal air, for after a long dive, helium leaves the body faster than nitrogen, allowing rapid decompression.
Helium is used as a shield gas in the vicinity of arc welding and cryogenics, prevention, for example, no reaction of hot metal welding with oxygen. The gas is used in the semiconductor industry condictor to provide an inert atmosphere for crystal silicon and germanium growing. It is also used as a high temperature gas in the production of titanium and zirconium, and as a carrier gas in gas chromatography.
By virtue of its very low temperatures, liquid helium is used to produce superconductivity in certain metals shares.
Abundance & Isotopes
Abundance earth's crust: 8 parts per billion by weight, 43 parts per billion by moles
Abundance solar system: 23 % by weight, 7.4 % by moles
Cost, pure: $5.2 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $ per 100g
Source: Nearly all the helium on Earth is the result of radioactive decay. The major sources of helium are from natural gas deposits in wells in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas. Helium is extracted by fractional distillation of the natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium.
Isotopes: Helium has 8 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 3 to 10. Of these two are stable, 3He and 4He. Over 99.999% of naturally occurring helium is in the form of 4He.
Abundance solar system: 23 % by weight, 7.4 % by moles
Cost, pure: $5.2 per 100g
Cost, bulk: $ per 100g
Source: Nearly all the helium on Earth is the result of radioactive decay. The major sources of helium are from natural gas deposits in wells in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas. Helium is extracted by fractional distillation of the natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium.
Isotopes: Helium has 8 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers 3 to 10. Of these two are stable, 3He and 4He. Over 99.999% of naturally occurring helium is in the form of 4He.
Discovery of helium
The story of the discovery of helium is intertwined with the discovery of the nature of the stars.
At one time people thought we would never know what stars are made. In 1835, Auguste Comte said, "we can never, by any means to study their chemical composition." He thought we could only learn this star-stuff was if we could enter the laboratory.
Despite the pessimism of Comte, the method for the discovery of helium and the compositions of the stars had been found. In 1814, Joseph Fraunhofer had taken the method of Isaac Newton split sunlight with a prism and made a crucial advance. Fraunhofer noticed dark lines in the sky colors from the sun split by a prism, the lines he saw was the first ever observation of spectrum of a star.
In 1859-1860 Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen has made huge leaps in the science of spectroscopy, including the discovery that the black lines of Fraunhofer saw was like a footprint of substance.
The stage was set for Kirchhoff and Bunsen discover new elements by studying the light from substances when burned. In 1860, they discovered cesium in its spectral lines blue and rubidium in 1861 from two spectral lines red. Then William Crookes discovered thallium in 1861 after observing a bright green line of the spectrum.
Kirchhoff and Bunsen looked spectrum of the sun and were able to conclude that iron is present in the atmosphere glowing.
For the discovery of helium, a few more years were needed. In August 1868, the first total eclipse since the work of Kirchhoff and Bunsen had been published was due. Pierre Janssen was waiting for an eclipse to observe prominences in the solar corona using a spectroscope. Within two weeks of Janssen Eclipse has developed a method of recording spectra protuberances ", without the need of an eclipse. In these spectra, it was a yellow line.
The name of the helium comes from the Greek word for sun, Helios.
Lockyer and Frankland Edward, his colleague, had a number of other ideas on the possible causes of the yellow line and did not announce a new element.
In 1871, scientists from other knew of the situation. Lord Kelvin, discussed "reflection of the bright light of hydrogen and" helium "around the sun." The use of "helium" is followed by a note to explain:
"Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very bright line decided not far from D, but hitherto not identified with an earthly flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to called helium. "
The story of the discovery of helium is intertwined with the discovery of the nature of the stars.
At one time people thought we would never know what stars are made. In 1835, Auguste Comte said, "we can never, by any means to study their chemical composition." He thought we could only learn this star-stuff was if we could enter the laboratory.
Despite the pessimism of Comte, the method for the discovery of helium and the compositions of the stars had been found. In 1814, Joseph Fraunhofer had taken the method of Isaac Newton split sunlight with a prism and made a crucial advance. Fraunhofer noticed dark lines in the sky colors from the sun split by a prism, the lines he saw was the first ever observation of spectrum of a star.
In 1859-1860 Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen has made huge leaps in the science of spectroscopy, including the discovery that the black lines of Fraunhofer saw was like a footprint of substance.
The stage was set for Kirchhoff and Bunsen discover new elements by studying the light from substances when burned. In 1860, they discovered cesium in its spectral lines blue and rubidium in 1861 from two spectral lines red. Then William Crookes discovered thallium in 1861 after observing a bright green line of the spectrum.
Kirchhoff and Bunsen looked spectrum of the sun and were able to conclude that iron is present in the atmosphere glowing.
For the discovery of helium, a few more years were needed. In August 1868, the first total eclipse since the work of Kirchhoff and Bunsen had been published was due. Pierre Janssen was waiting for an eclipse to observe prominences in the solar corona using a spectroscope. Within two weeks of Janssen Eclipse has developed a method of recording spectra protuberances ", without the need of an eclipse. In these spectra, it was a yellow line.
The name of the helium comes from the Greek word for sun, Helios.
Lockyer and Frankland Edward, his colleague, had a number of other ideas on the possible causes of the yellow line and did not announce a new element.
In 1871, scientists from other knew of the situation. Lord Kelvin, discussed "reflection of the bright light of hydrogen and" helium "around the sun." The use of "helium" is followed by a note to explain:
"Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very bright line decided not far from D, but hitherto not identified with an earthly flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to called helium. "
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
General:
Name: Hydrogen
Type: Non-Metal
Density @ 293 K: 0.0000899 g/cm3
Type: Non-Metal
Density @ 293 K: 0.0000899 g/cm3
Symbol: H
Atomic weight: 1.0079
Atomic volume: 14.4 cm3/mol
States
State (s, l, g): gas
Melting point: 14.01 K (-259.14 oC)
Melting point: 14.01 K (-259.14 oC)
Boiling point: 20.28 K (-252.87 oC)
Appearance
Structure: hcp: hexagonal close packed (as solid at low temperatures)
Hardness: mohs
Hardness: mohs
Color: Colorless
Harmful effects:
Hydrogen is highly flammable and has an almost invisible flame, which can lead to accidental burns.
Reactions & Compounds
Reaction with air: vigorous, ⇒ H2O
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): H2O
Hydride(s): H2
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: none
Oxide(s): H2O
Hydride(s): H2
Reaction with 6 M HCl: none
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): HCl
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): HCl
Radius
Atomic radius: 25 pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (1+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Energies
Specific heat capacity: 14.304 J g-1 K-1
Heat of fusion: 0.117 kJ mol-1 of H2
1st ionization energy: 1312 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Heat of fusion: 0.117 kJ mol-1 of H2
1st ionization energy: 1312 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Heat of atomization: 218 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 0.904 kJ mol-1 of H2
2nd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 72.7711 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization: 0.904 kJ mol-1 of H2
2nd ionization energy: kJ mol-1
Electron affinity: 72.7711 kJ mol-1
Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 1
Minimum oxidation number: -1
Min. common oxidation no.: -1
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 2.18
Minimum oxidation number: -1
Min. common oxidation no.: -1
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 2.18
Electron configuration: 1s1
Maximum oxidation number: 1
Max. common oxidation no.: 1
Polarizability volume: 0.7 Å3
Maximum oxidation number: 1
Max. common oxidation no.: 1
Polarizability volume: 0.7 Å3
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: 0.1805 W m-1 K-1
Electrical conductivity: S cm-1
- Characteristics:
Hydrogen is the simplest element of all, and the lightest. It is also by far the most common element in the Universe. Over 90 percent of the atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.
In its commonest form, the hydrogen atom is made of one proton, one electron, and no neutrons. Hydrogen is the only element that can exist without neutrons.
Characteristics:
Hydrogen is the simplest element of all, and the lightest. It is also by far the most common element in the Universe. Over 90 percent of the atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.
In its commonest form, the hydrogen atom is made of one proton, one electron, and no neutrons. Hydrogen is the only element that can exist without neutrons.
uses:
Large quantities of hydrogen are used in the Haber process (ammonia production), hydrogenation of fats and oils, methanol production, hydrocracking, and hydrodesulfurization. Hydrogen is also used in metal refining.
Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel, such as powering the space shuttle take-off and climb into orbit. Liquid hydrogen and oxygen are required in large shuttle, the external fuel tank.
Hydrogen is two heavy isotopes (deuterium and tritium) are used in nuclear fusion.
The hydrogen economy has been proposed as a replacement for our current hydrocarbon (oil, gas and coal) based economy.
The base of the hydrogen economy as energy is produced when hydrogen burns with oxygen and the only by-product of the reaction is water.
At present, however, hydrogen for hydrogen cars is produced from hydrocarbons. Only when the solar or wind, for example, can be used commercially to split water into hydrogen and oxygen will be a true hydrogen economy is possible.
Large quantities of hydrogen are used in the Haber process (ammonia production), hydrogenation of fats and oils, methanol production, hydrocracking, and hydrodesulfurization. Hydrogen is also used in metal refining.
Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel, such as powering the space shuttle take-off and climb into orbit. Liquid hydrogen and oxygen are required in large shuttle, the external fuel tank.
Hydrogen is two heavy isotopes (deuterium and tritium) are used in nuclear fusion.
The hydrogen economy has been proposed as a replacement for our current hydrocarbon (oil, gas and coal) based economy.
The base of the hydrogen economy as energy is produced when hydrogen burns with oxygen and the only by-product of the reaction is water.
At present, however, hydrogen for hydrogen cars is produced from hydrocarbons. Only when the solar or wind, for example, can be used commercially to split water into hydrogen and oxygen will be a true hydrogen economy is possible.
Abundance & Isotopes
Land of abundance in the crust: 1400 parts per million by weight (0.14%), 2.9 mol%
Abundance solar system: 75% by weight, 93 mol%
Cost shares: $ 12 for 100g
Cost, bulk: $ 100g
Source: Hydrogen is prepared commercially by reacting superheated steam with methane or carbon. In the laboratory, hydrogen can be produced by the action of acids on metals such as zinc or magnesium, or by the electrolysis of water (shown at left).
Isotopes: Hydrogen has three isotopes, 1H (protium), 2H (deuterium) and 3H (tritium). Its two heavy isotopes (deuterium and tritium) are used for nuclear fusion. Protium is the most abundant isotope, tritium and less abundant. Tritium is unstable with a half-life of about 12 years and 4 months.
Land of abundance in the crust: 1400 parts per million by weight (0.14%), 2.9 mol%
Abundance solar system: 75% by weight, 93 mol%
Cost shares: $ 12 for 100g
Cost, bulk: $ 100g
Source: Hydrogen is prepared commercially by reacting superheated steam with methane or carbon. In the laboratory, hydrogen can be produced by the action of acids on metals such as zinc or magnesium, or by the electrolysis of water (shown at left).
Isotopes: Hydrogen has three isotopes, 1H (protium), 2H (deuterium) and 3H (tritium). Its two heavy isotopes (deuterium and tritium) are used for nuclear fusion. Protium is the most abundant isotope, tritium and less abundant. Tritium is unstable with a half-life of about 12 years and 4 months.
Interesting Facts: Did You Know?
Interesting Facts about Hydrogen: Did You Know?
- About 10 percent of the weight of living organisms is hydrogen - mainly in water, proteins and fats.
- Liquid hydrogen has the lowest density of any liquid.
- Solid, crystalline hydrogen has the lowest density of any crystalline solid.
- Hydrogen is believed to be one of three elements produced in the Big Bang; the others are helium and lithium.
- We owe most of the energy on our planet to hydrogen. The Sun's nuclear fires convert hydrogen to helium releasing a large amount of energy in the process.
- Hydrogen forms both positive and negative ions. It does this more readily than any other element.
- Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.
- Hydrogen is the only atom for which the Schrödinger equation has an exact solution.
Hydrogen reacts explosively with the elements oxygen, chlorine and fluorine: O2, Cl2, F2.
Discovery of hydrogen:
The first known case of hydrogen made by human action was in the first half of 1500, by a method similar to that used in schools today. Theophrastus Paracelsus, a physician, dissolved iron in sulfuric acid and observe the release of a gas.
Hydrogen has been recognized as a distinct substance by Henry Cavendish in 1776. history
The Greek word hydro (water), and genes (forming). Hydrogen has been recognized as a distinct substance by Henry Cavendish in 1776. Diagram of a single hydrogen atom.
Hydrogen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe. The heavier elements were originally made from hydrogen atoms or other elements that were originally made from hydrogen atoms.
The first known case of hydrogen made by human action was in the first half of 1500, by a method similar to that used in schools today. Theophrastus Paracelsus, a physician, dissolved iron in sulfuric acid and observe the release of a gas.
Hydrogen has been recognized as a distinct substance by Henry Cavendish in 1776. history
The Greek word hydro (water), and genes (forming). Hydrogen has been recognized as a distinct substance by Henry Cavendish in 1776. Diagram of a single hydrogen atom.
Hydrogen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe. The heavier elements were originally made from hydrogen atoms or other elements that were originally made from hydrogen atoms.
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